Ramanuja (11th-12th century) founded Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) partly in response to Shankara's Advaita. While both are non-dualistic Vedantic schools, they differ fundamentally. Vishishtadvaita argues Brahman exists with qualities (saguna)—specifically as Vishnu/Narayana—and individual souls (jivas) and matter (jagat) are real, eternal entities that form Brahman's body. Like soul-body unity (one entity, distinct aspects), jivas and world are inseparable from Brahman but not identical with it. Liberation involves eternal loving service to personal God in Vaikuntha. Ramanuja criticized Advaita's Maya doctrine as "crypto-Buddhism," arguing the world's reality cannot be anirvachaniya (indefinable). For Vishishtadvaita, bhakti (devotion) is supreme path, and relationship with personal God is ultimate fulfillment. Advaita maintains that Nirguna Brahman (attributeless) is higher reality; Saguna Brahman (God with qualities) is valid but provisional understanding for those not ready for absolute non-duality. World and souls are ultimately non-different from Brahman, though they have empirical reality through Maya. Liberation is recognizing one's identity with Brahman, transcending subject-object duality entirely—even devotee-God duality. The debate hinges on whether ultimate reality is personal or impersonal, relational or non-dual, and whether liberation preserves individuality or reveals its illusory nature.